Animal Proteins

Assuming that brute protein remains a relevant role of human consumption, we must effigy out how to keep livestock in favorable ways for individuals, communities, and the globe.

From: Poultry Quality Evaluation , 2017

Past-PRODUCTS | Inedible

H.Due west. Ockerman , 50. Basu , in Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences (2d Edition), 2014

Animal By-Product Feed Ingredients

Animal protein supplements and fats accept long been utilized by the feed compounding manufacture, primarily for their protein (amino acid) content, mineral content (calcium and phosphorus), and free energy contributions. More than 125 individual ABPs are listed in the Clan of American Feed Control Officials 2002 Ingredient Manual, just only 11 are major high-volume ingredients. This listing includes 46 dissimilar animal protein ingredients. The major protein ingredients are MBM (meat meal (MM)), poultry repast, hydrolyzed plumage repast (HFM), claret meal, claret and plasma meal, and fish meal. Similarly, five primary categories incorporate the major quantity of animal fats, which are tallow, choice white grease (CWG) (lard), xanthous grease, poultry fatty, and fish oil. All of these ingredients take different nutrient and product specifications. They all have specific contributions when used equally components of livestock, poultry, companion animal, and aquaculture diets. The term nutrient is applied to whatsoever food constituent or group of constituents of the aforementioned general chemical composition that aids in the back up of life. Poly peptide, carbohydrates, fat, minerals, and vitamins are the more often than not recognized classes of nutrients. ABP ingredients not only contribute virtually to protein, fat, and mineral nutritional requirements of animals but likewise provide several sources of fatty-soluble and B vitamins. The nutrient qualities complement other feed ingredients and specially the feed grains, which are principal sugar sources. During early on development of the modern nutrient requirement and nutrient allowance information, MBM provided unidentified growth factors (UGFs) that contributed to unexplained improvements in growth, feed utilization, reproduction, and disease prevention. Well-nigh of the UGFs have at present been identified equally specific vitamins, amino acids, or microminerals that tin be included in diets from synthetic or refined sources. Nevertheless, both modern commercial and experimental diets exhibit improved performance when beast by-products are included in the diets under a variety of management and product practices. Several antinutritional compounds and contaminants associated with other ingredient classes are non problematic with ABPs. Specifically, these include trypsin inhibitors, goitrogenic compounds, gossypol, mycotoxin/aflatoxins, glucosinolates, tannis, lectins, phytates, lathyrism, oxalates, alkaloids, and cyanogens. In add-on, animal proteins do not comprise oligosaccharides and other nonstarch polysaccharides that have been shown to alter gut viscosity and to reduce the digestibility of fats and proteins.

The animal feed and ingredient industries are major users of rendered animal fats and proteins. The subsequent text addresses the specific characteristics and specifications for each of the basic creature fats and protein ingredients.

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Protein and Peptide Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery

Gabriel Davidov-Pardo , ... David Julian McClements , in Advances in Poly peptide Chemistry and Structural Biology, 2015

3.one Brute proteins

Brute proteins are widely used for the formation of poly peptide particles in the food manufacture, e.g., casein, whey poly peptide, gelatin, egg proteins, and fibroin. Proteins isolated from milk are one of the most commonly used proteins from animal sources, e.grand., caseins and whey proteins. If milk is acidified or treated with chymotrypsin, and then the casein precipitates, while the whey protein remains soluble ( Damodaran et al., 2008). Whey proteins are widely used in the food industry due to their high nutritional value and excellent functional attributes, e.g., emulsification, gelling, foaming, and thickening. Albumins are water-soluble globular animal proteins with a relatively low heat stability. These are attractive proteins for the production of microparticles or nanoparticles as they are widely available in a pure form and are biodegradable and nontoxic (Jahanshahi & Babaei, 2008). Gelatin is also readily bachelor and is produced by controlled hydrolysis of collagen obtained from bone, cartilage, or peel tissue (Belitz, Grosch, & Schieberle, 2009). Gelatin displays interesting functional properties such equally common cold-set gelation and gel properties that are highly dependent on the gelatin concentration, pH, cooling rate, and holding temperature (Burey, Bhandari, Howes, & Gidley, 2008). Therefore, it is too a useful material to produce food-grade poly peptide particles (Hedayati, Jahanshahi, & Attar, 2011; Khan & Schneider, 2013; Langer et al., 2003; Taheri, Jahanshahi, & Mosavian, 2012). Fibroin has been used in biomedical applications because of its biocompatibility, biodegradability, antimicrobial properties, and unusual high thermal stability (Subia & Kundu, 2013), just may also be suitable for some food applications.

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The environmental and command of bacterial pathogens in animal feed

Westward.Q. Alali , S.C. Ricke , in Fauna Feed Contagion, 2012

3.two.4 Pathogens in specific protein supplements

Fauna and constitute protein meals used in feed production can serve as vehicles for the introduction of contaminants to the respective feed-stuffs (McChesney and Kaplan, 1998; Wagner, 2004; Myint et al., 2007). Wagner (2004) reported Salmonella, Enterococcus, and E. coli contamination in animal protein (n = 122) and plant protein samples (n = 79). In the fauna protein samples, the prevalence of contamination was 34%, 84% and 40%, respectively; whereas in plant protein samples, the prevalence was 5%, 91%, and 43%, respectively.

Pathogen contamination of vegetable proteins from cereal grains has been well documented (Crump et al., 2002; Jones and Richardson, 2004; Davies et al., 2004). Soybean meal and corn meal are the most common vegetable protein supplements in the US livestock and poultry industry (Cullison and Lowrey, 1987; Jurgens, 1993). Other protein meals such as canola are used, but on a much more than limited calibration. Jones and Richardson (2004) found that 10% (n = 10) of soybean meal, 100% (northward = ii) of cottonseed meal, and v.26% (north = 19) of corn samples contained Salmonella. In contrast, Myint et al. (2007) reported a very low Salmonella prevalence: one isolate in sunflower plant protein meal. The authors tested 158 samples of a variety of plant proteins including soybean meal, maize, cottonseed repast, sunflower, and peanuts that were purchased from different commercial feed stores in the U.s.. The overall Enterococcus and Eastward. coli prevalences were 80% and 9%, respectively. The highest prevalence for both bacteria was in maize samples (Myint et al., 2007). MacKenzie and Bains (1976) reported presence of Salmonella in vegetable proteins including sunflower repast, peanut repast, bran repast, soybean meal, and corn repast. Sunflower meal samples were highly contaminated with S. Birnum, whereas soybean repast samples were highly contaminated with S. Singapore. Hacking et al. (1978) establish Salmonella in corn and soybean meal samples collected from i feed mill in Ontario, Canada. The authors did non serotype the isolates.

In Japan, Morita et al. (2003, 2004) reported that soybean and canola seeds were contaminated with Salmonella when brought to the oil manufacturing plant. Oil is extracted from the seeds and the remainder is the protein meal used in feed production. The authors concluded that Salmonella might contaminate the plant and consequently the poly peptide meals. They suggested that in lodge to preclude the spread and survival of Salmonella, it is important to reduce oil repast establish contamination. Morita et al. (2006) demonstrated that oil repast plant workers, dust and rodents were the almost significant risk factors that contributed to the contamination of oil manufacturing plants where protein meals are produced.

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Protein Basics: Animal and Vegetable Proteins in Food and Health

Jacqueline B. Marcus MS, RD, LD, CNS, FADA , in Culinary Diet, 2013

Sources of Protein

Protein is abundant in foods and beverages from animals, including meat, poultry, fish and seafood, eggs and dairy products, and foods and beverages from plants, including legumes, vegetables and grains and nuts and seeds.

Meat, Poultry, Fish and Seafood

Animate being proteins, found in meat, poultry, fish and seafood, provide excellent, high-quality protein, vitamin B12, and the minerals iron and zinc. One 4-ounce serving of animal protein, such as a 4-ounce beefsteak, chicken breast or pork chop, contains near 30 grams of protein. Other nutrients, including calories and fat vary.

Morsel

"Beefiness is the soul of cooking."

—Marie Antoine Careme (French King of Chefs and the Chef of Kings, 1784–1833)

Eggs

Eggs are nutrient-dense, with about 7 grams of protein per big egg at only 75 calories. Eggs contain 13 essential nutrients. These include the vitamins folate, riboflavin and vitamin D; the minerals calcium, phosphorus, atomic number 26, iodine, selenium and zinc; the phytonutrients lutein and zeaxanthin; and choline, a vitamin-similar substance.

Recipe

Mushroom and Irish potato Frittata

Eggs accept been dubbed "Nature's Perfect Food" because they are naturally housed inside shells, provide a powerhouse of nutrients, offer a wide assortment of functionality and versatility in cooking and blistering, meet formulation requirements in product evolution, and are relatively inexpensive. The recipe for Mushroom and Tater Frittata is in the Recipe file which is located within the Culinary Diet website at world wide web.culinarynutrition.elsevier.com , pairs eggs with flavorsome mushrooms, simple potatoes and fresh herbs in an open-faced omelet that is adaptable for many meals, day or night. The finished dish is shown within the centerfold Photo file in Plate v.1 .

Dairy Products

Dairy products are first-class sources of high-quality protein; vitamins, including niacin, phosphorus, potassium, riboflavin, vitamins B12 and D; and minerals, including calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and potassium.

One 4-ounce serving of low-fat (2%) cottage cheese has nearly 15 grams of protein; 1 loving cup of obviously nonfat yogurt has about 12 grams of protein; i loving cup of fat-gratuitous dairy milk has about viii grams of protein; and one loving cup of vanilla ice cream has most 4 grams of poly peptide. Calories and other nutrients vary.

Legumes

Garbanzo beans (chick peas), kidney beans, lima beans and other legumes, and peanut butter provide lower-quality, incomplete protein, while soybeans provide complete protein. Legumes are also a expert source of fiber; the B vitamins, especially folate; and the minerals calcium, atomic number 26, selenium and zinc. One-one-half cup of cooked legumes contains about eight grams of poly peptide, as does ½ cup of tofu (soybean curd) and 2 tablespoons of peanut butter. There are near 125 calories in ½ loving cup of cooked legumes and about 200 calories in 2 tablespoons of peanut butter.

Vegetables and Grains

Vegetables, such as broccoli and spinach, and grains and grain products, such as rice and breadstuff, provide lower-quality, incomplete protein. Half cup of cooked vegetables, 1 piece of bread and ½ cup of cooked grains range in protein from 2 to six grams. If they are fortified, the protein may exist higher. Calories and other nutrients vary.

Nuts and Seeds

Ii tablespoons of basics or seeds contain about 2 to 3 grams of protein; vitamins, including vitamins A and E; minerals, including phosphorous and potassium; and fiber. Nuts and seeds are loftier in fat in proportion to their protein content. At that place are about 100 calories in 2 tablespoons of nuts. The protein content of common foods is shown in Table five-two.

Table 5-2. Poly peptide Content of Common Foods

Foods Serving Sizes Protein (grams)
Beefiness round roast, cooked 3 ounces 25
Breadstuff, white 1 slice 3
Broccoli, cooked ½ loving cup three
Cheddar cheese 2 ounces 14
Chicken, white meat, cooked three ounces xxx
Cottage cheese ½ cup 14
Egg, whole one egg 6
Fish (as flounder, halibut), cooked three ounces 12
Hot dog, cooked 2 ounces 7
Legumes (as kidney, lima, garbanzo) ½ loving cup eight
Milk, 2% 1 cup 8
Mozarella cheese two ounces 12
Lamb, cooked three ounces 21
Pasta, cooked ½ cup iii
Peanut butter 2 tablespoons 8
Pork roast, cooked 3 ounces 21
Rice, brown, cooked ½ loving cup five
Sausage, cooked 1 patty 5
Shrimp, cooked 12 large 17
Soymilk 1 loving cup six
Tofu 3 ounces eight
Tortilla, corn ane tortilla 2
Tuna, canned 3 ounces 24
Turkey, white meat, cooked three ounces 28
Yogurt, low-fatty 8 ounces 12

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Nephrolithiasis, Nephrocalcinosis, and Hypercalciuria

Anirban Bose , David A. Bushinsky , in Chronic Renal Disease (2nd Edition), 2020

Dietary Poly peptide Intake

Consumption of animal poly peptide is a risk cistron for calcium besides as uric acid stone formation. 131 The acrid generated from this diet causes efflux of calcium from bone 132 and increases filtered load of calcium. An acidic tubular fluid decreases renal tubular calcium reabsorption leading to increased calcium excretion. Reduced urinary citrate excretion 133 and lowered calcium solubility because of the presence of sulfates from the acidic amino acids are other lithogenic furnishings of such a diet. 132 Reducing the animal protein content of diet to 0.8–ane.0   m/kg/day can help reduce the risk of stone germination. 78

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Food Chain: Farm to Market

1000.A. Havas , C.S. Watts , in Encyclopedia of Agronomics and Nutrient Systems, 2014

Delineating the Protein Food Supply Chain

The animal protein sector of the US market place will exist used to draw the complexity of the food supply chain. Groups such every bit Cargill, Cenex, and multinational organizations have been discussed above. Animal protein product business in the Usa has get highly integrated and this is specially true in the livestock sector. Livestock farmers are of a larger scale than ever before; they also generally raise a unmarried species in enclosed housing. Further, beefiness cattle, hog, and poultry farmers often only heighten certain age groups of animals. One farmer raises young animals, and adults are 'finished' by another farmer. Much of this highly industrialized arrangement developed to permit greater value to the cease product and to increment efficiency by the farmer.

The value of these animals and the payment received by farmers today is no longer driven by a daily, weekly, or monthly market system, but is instead based on services provided and contractual agreements. Livestock systems have geographic niches throughout the Usa. Beefiness cattle feedlots are primarily found in Northern Texas, Kansas, Nebraska, Eastern Colorado, and Iowa. The leading dairy states are California, Wisconsin, Idaho, New York, and Pennsylvania. Hogs are institute in Iowa, Minnesota, and North Carolina (Hoskin, 2012). Broilers are most predominant in Georgia, Arkansan, and the Delmarva Peninsula (Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia) (MacDonald, 2008). Co-ordinate to the 2007 US Census of Agriculture, at that place were approximately 96 1000000 cattle and calves, 68 million hogs, 350 1000000 layer birds, and 9 billion broiler birds in the The states in 2007 (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2009). To highlight the complexity of the agricultural industry, the beef supply organisation and value chain will be discussed in particular and cursory overviews of the pork, dairy, and poultry industries will be given.

Almost of the livestock manufacture in the United states of america is segregated by product groups, frequently based on age and maturity of the fauna. Beefiness cattle originate from cow–calf operations, oftentimes on ranges and pasturelands. When the animals are weaned, they are sold to finishing operations at feedlots (National Brute Health Monitoring System, 2011). The assurance in the supply of the calves has to exist worthwhile to the feeder, finisher, or processor who is buying the calves in social club to lock in an agreed-upon price. Small-scale farmers likely have a lesser power in meeting the demands of these contracts. The upshot is that larger-scale farms are more vertically integrated, that is the producers sell to the same buyers in the production chain year after twelvemonth. This is probable due to the use of contracts and on sales based on market value chain characteristics (National Fauna Health Monitoring System, 2011). In the United States, the ten largest feedlot operations account for 30% of the beef feeding capacity as well. Further, x.5% of the industry are endemic by the JBS Five Rivers and Cargill corporations. The move toward corporation and multiple owners versus single possessor feedlot systems represents the benefits gained out of the economic system of calibration (Galyean, 2010). Feedlots tin range in size from a few hundred head of cattle to thousands of head of cattle (Harvey, 2012; Figure 2).

Figure two. Beef cattle distribution in the United States, 2007.

 Reproduced from U.s.a. Department of Agronomics.

Dairy production has increased dramatically since 1970. Milk production per cow has doubled whereas subcontract numbers accept decreased a little over seven-fold from 650   000 farms in 1970 to 90   000 farms in the 2000s. Despite the number of farms being much smaller the average herd size has also grown 5-fold, from 20 head of cattle to 100 caput of cattle. Of all the milk produced, one-third is used for fluid milk sales. The rest is processed into other dairy products such as cheese, butter, yoghurt, ice cream, and then on. Almost half of the milk produced is made into cheese, with mozzarella being the almost pop cheese type in the United States. In fact, the largest demand, and the major economic force behind the US milk industry is the demand for cheese. Its need has doubled in the past 25 years, whereas fluid milk need has declined slightly (Hoskin, 2012; Figure 3).

Figure iii. Dairy cow distribution in the United States, 2007.

 Reproduced from U.s. Department of Agronomics.

The pork industry in the United States has changed dramatically in the past 20 years, only the United States continues to be a leader in pork production with total pork sales numbering US$eighteen.1 billion in 2007. Between 1992 and 2004, the number of farms involved in pork production dropped by 70%. Nonetheless, like to beef, the number of swine in the United States remained stable at 60 million head of swine. Farms went from owning 945 swine on boilerplate in 1992 to 4646 swine in 2004, with more than 50% of the farms owning >5000 head of swine in 2004 (Key and McBride, 2007; Ecology Protection Agency, 2012; Figure 4).

Figure 4. Swine distribution in the The states, 2007.

 Reproduced from United States Department of Agriculture.

The US swine industry is broken into ii parts, just at that place are many phases to the actual pork production cycle. Breeding occurs presently later a sow'southward piglets are weaned. Sows requite birth almost precisely at three months, 3 weeks, and 3 days subsequently convenance (113–116 days) (Environmental Protection Agency, 2012; Cardinal and McBride, 2007). Many sows farrow or give birth to iii–5 litters in their lifetime and each litter is approximately fabricated up of 8–12 piglets. When piglets are between 6 and 10 weeks the pigs move into a grower/finisher phase. The grower/finisher phase of product is the stage where the pigs are fed free choice until they reach marketplace weight, which is approximately 250–275 lb (Ecology Protection Bureau, 2012). Most phases are split up into two- or three-tiers of production. Breeding and gestation oftentimes occurs at one location whereas farrowing, nursery, and growing/finishing are done at some other location (Environmental Protection Agency, 2012). These production phases are either done through 1 business or through split up businesses focused on stage of production (Cardinal and McBride, 2007), farrowing, and nursery historic period pigs are oft raised in one location and then transported to a grower/finisher farm. The leading hog producing states in the United States are Iowa, North Carolina, Minnesota, Illinois, and Indiana (Pork Checkoff, 2012).

Poultry production has changed dramatically since the early twentieth century when a large number of households endemic at to the lowest degree a few chickens. Today, the industry comprises farms that focus on i area of product for one species. Birds are raised as layers (eggs) or broilers. Farmers may also be pullet producers (young chickens) that are supplied to broiler and layer production farms. (MacDonald, 2008; Harvey, 2012). In total, approximately 18% of poultry products are exported from the United States and it is the leading global poultry producer, every bit well as the 2nd leading egg producer and poultry product exported (Harvey, 2012).

The majority of the poultry production is found in the broiler production industry. Broilers are immature birds raised for meat (Economic Research Service, 2009a,b). The majority of farms are found in the area spanning Delaware to Georgia on the Eastern Seaboard and extending every bit far Westward equally Oklahoma and Texas. The leading poultry producing states are Georgia, Arkansas, Mississippi, and N Carolina, in lodge of decreasing product. Product is coordinated differently than other animate being production systems. The growers supply all the needs and labor for growing the birds from pullets to market weight birds, which takes approximately vi–eight weeks. A group known as 'integrators' manages the pullets, feed, and processing industries and contracts with the growers to prepare the birds for slaughter and therefore market place (MacDonald, 2008). They, therefore, supply the pullets (young birds), veterinary care, and feed for the birds. The processors substantially contract out the cost of growing the birds (Figure v).

Figure v. Poultry distribution in the United States, 2007.

 Reproduced from United States Department of Agronomics.

The egg industry is markedly unlike from the broiler manufacture in that information technology is vertically integrated, meaning that one company owns the birds, manages the eggs, and sells the eggs. Yet, typically, the layer stock is still purchased from another company, with chicks arriving at the laying farm from the hatchery within 1 or two days after hatching. At the laying subcontract they are either placed in a laying cage or raised in a pullet house where they are fed until they attain approximately iii pounds (ane.4   kg) in weight, which takes approximately fifteen more than weeks. Between 15 and 18 weeks of historic period the hens are moved to the laying barn where daylight length is increased and feed becomes advert libitum or always available every bit layer hens regulate the nutrient intake. The daylight exposure assists in initiating the onset of egg laying. At 60–70 week approximately 50% of the birds are laying, which is typically seen equally the economic breakeven point for the producer. At this point, farmers will induce a molt in the birds, to increase the egg-laying life of the majority of the birds in the flock to approximately 100–110 weeks of historic period. At this point, betwixt 100 and 130 weeks of age, most hens are sent to a spent hen facility where they are candy for meat production into items such as pet food, canned chicken, chicken soup, etc. or for disposal. The molting process is disquisitional to farming efficiency and deserves more than caption. Molting is the process where hens lose their old feathers and grow back new ones. It is a hormonal process coupled with low-cal manipulation (Carey and Brake, 2007).

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Protein gels

C.D. Munialo , ... H.H.J. de Jongh , in Proteins in Food Processing (2d Edition), 2018

19.9.1 Conclusion

Every bit much equally animate being proteins have played an important role as gelling agents in the food industry, there are alternative sources of protein that are explored that seem to have comparable product functionality as creature proteins. To allow for the replacement of animal proteins by plant proteins in food products and withal come up with products that have similar functionality will still yet be a challenge when one is interested in finding a replacement that has all the qualities as the protein beingness replaced. Additionally, at that place still remains a challenge in hitting a residuum between introducing new proteins in the nutrient manufacture versus the challenges that arise from innovations in the biorefinery adjacent to the economic picture. In view of the research beingness carried out in collaboration between the knowledge institutes and the food industry, these issues may be solved in the most future resulting in the evolution of food products by the use of alternative proteins.

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Full-cost accounting for determination-making related to livestock systems

Nadia El-Hage Scialabba , in Managing Health Livestock Production and Consumption, 2022

Caution

Before 1950, animal poly peptide was a luxury that globally few people could beget to eat on a daily footing. Fossil-fuel based inputs (e.chiliad., nitrogen fertilizers) and antibiotics after removed the resource-limited capping, allowing the global population to grow from 3 to ten billion in 100 years. The price we may have to pay for "degrowing" the livestock sector is that beast poly peptide will go a luxury once more, as we internalize natural resource externalities of livestock systems, including country, h2o, biodiversity, ecosystem services and worker's rights. Currently, the estimated price of the global livestock sector on the natural capital is over USD i.18 trillion, or 134% of the livestock product value (FAO, 2015).

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Vitamin Requirements

In Horse Feeding and Nutrition (2nd Edition), 1991

XVII. VITAMIN B12

A. Names Used Previously

The names brute protein gene, zoopherin, erythrotin, gene X, and physin accept been used for vitamin B12. The term vitamin B12 should be used for all compounds exhibiting the biological activity of cyanocobalamin, hydroxycobalamin, and nitrocobalamin. Thus, phrases such equally "vitamin B12 action" or "vitamin B12 deficiency" are preferred usage.

B. Effects of Deficiency

Vitamin B12 functions in the utilization of carbohydrates, fat, and protein. Therefore, it is very important in feed utilization. In animals other than the horse, a deficiency of B12 results in poor growth and reproduction, anemia (normocytic, normochromic), posterior incoordination, unsteadiness in gait, poor appetite, hyperirritability, and a rough pilus coat. A vitamin B12 deficiency has not been produced in the horse. Some of the deficiency symptoms obtained with other animals, however, may occur with the horse.

C. Requirements

There is no experimental information reported on the vitamin B12 requirements of the horse beyond that supplied by abdominal synthesis (3). Tables 5.2, five.3, 5.four, and 15.ix requite suggested levels of vitamin B12 for racing and functioning horses. The estimated requirements of most animals range from virtually four to 10 μg per pound of diet.

D. General Information

A vitamin B12 deficiency has never been produced experimentally in horses: however, severely debilitated, anemic, heavily parasitized horses appear to respond to vitamin B12 injections (67). Parasitism is a astringent problem with horses. In certain warm, boiling areas, horses are treated monthly for parasites. In other areas, they are treated every 2 months. Parasitized horses usually bleed internally and thus more blood regeneration is needed. It is reasonable to assume that the horse's demand for vitamin B12, other B-complex vitamins, iron, copper, other minerals, poly peptide, and other nutrients concerned with claret and hemoglobin formation would increase due to parasitism. Many horse owners and trainers are in understanding and therefore add vitamin B12 and other B vitamins to their horses' diets. They feel it is good insurance against a possible demand. This is especially and so with horses used for racing and high-level performance purposes where a loftier hemoglobin level is necessary for high oxygen-carrying capacity to all tissues of the body. Well-nigh horse trainers like to take levels of hemoglobin at sixteen% or more.

The horse synthesizes vitamin B12 from cobalt in the diet. This ways the diet of the horse must provide plenty cobalt for microorganism vitamin B12 synthesis. The level of cobalt needed is quite depression, notwithstanding, since horses have remained in good health while grazing pastures so low in cobalt that ruminants bars to them died (68). Vitamin B12 contains well-nigh four% cobalt. Vitamin B12 is absorbed from the lower digestive tract (large intestine) of the equus caballus (v, 67, 69–71).

A study with a purified nutrition showed that mature horses receiving vi μg of vitamin B12 daily for 11 months failed to show any signs of a deficiency (seventy). This indicates that the horse has considerable capability to synthesize this vitamin, every bit has been shown past a number of scientists.

No toxic effects have been reported from using vitamin B12 at excessive levels with the horse. Even so, excessive levels are best avoided. Mouse data suggest that dietary levels of at to the lowest degree several hundred times the requirement level are safe (2). An Ohio written report involved feeding 100 times the vitamin B12 requirement to sows and it benefited reproduction (72).

Feed ingredients of establish origin are devoid of vitamin B12. Traces may be present, however, due to synthesis by microorganisms which adhere to the plants. Vitamin B12 is unique in that it is synthesized in nature only by microorganisms. Animal product feeds are practiced sources of vitamin B12, notwithstanding.

Vitamin B12 is necessary for proprionic acid utilization. Therefore, a diet involving increased volatile fat acid production (of which proprionic acid is ane) would require vitamin B12 adequacy.

Vitamin B12 is metabolically related to other essential nutrients such as methionine, choline, and folacin. It is stored principally in the liver.

Absorption of vitamin B12 is mainly in the ileum and is facilitated past the presence of the intrinsic factor which is released in gastric juice. Whether this occurs in the horse is not known.

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Plant proteins as culling sources for fish feed and farmed fish quality

S.J. Kaushik , G.-I. Hemre , in Improving Farmed Fish Quality and Condom, 2008

12.3.3 Plant protein sources as alternatives to fish meal in the diets of fish and shrimp

Compared with terrestrial animal and plant protein sources, fishmeal is unique in that it is not just an excellent source of high quality brute protein and essential amino acids, merely is too a adept source of digestible energy, essential minerals and vitamins, and lipids (Hertrampf and Piedad-Pascual, 2000). At nowadays, most formulated feeds used in aquaculture of fish and shrimp already contain variable levels of protein-rich plant derived ingredients. The limitations as regards their incorporation in the diets for fish and shrimp every bit in whatever other farmed animal are related to the amino acid profiles of these feedstuffs and the presence and levels of potential anti-nutritional factors (ANF). For instance, establish poly peptide sources that are particularly low in lysine are corn and wheat and most oil-seeds take low levels of methionine. Table 12.iii gives a small-scale overview of amino acid profiles in some of the most abundant institute protein ingredients used equally alternatives to fish meal.

Table 12.three. Amino acid profile in normally used plant protein resources, expected to be important for fish feed (data expressed as k/sixteen one thousand Due north, are of indicative nature merely, since large batch variations can occur)

Soy prot conc Wheat gluten Corn gluten repast Soybean repast Rapeseed repast Sunflower meal Lupin Peas Fish meals
ARG 7.7 ii.five 3.2 seven.4 six.0 8.2 ten.nine 8.6 five.8
HIS 2.4 1.five 2.1 2.6 two.6 2.iv two.2 two.5 2.4
ILE 4.8 2.9 four.1 iv.half dozen four.0 4.one 4.half-dozen 4.2 4.3
LEU 8.one 5.three fifteen.9 7.four half-dozen.7 6.1 seven.3 7.1 7.2
LYS half dozen.five 1.2 1.8 6.1 5.3 iii.6 four.nine 7.3 seven.5
MET 1.2 ane.4 two.4 1.4 2.0 2.3 0.8 one.0 2.viii
CYS 1.2 1.5 1.8 1.5 2.iv one.seven 1.vi ane.iii 0.8
MET+CYS 2.four ii.9 four.2 2.ix iv.5 iv.0 2.four ii.3 iii.7
PHE four.9 4.0 half-dozen.2 5.0 iii.ix iv.iv 3.9 4.vii 3.9
TYR 3.7 2.v five.0 3.3 two.nine 2.iii 4.7 3.1 3.0
PHE+TYR 8.6 6.five eleven.2 8.4 6.8 six.7 8.half-dozen 7.eight seven.0
THR 4.ii 2.1 iii.3 three.ix 4.3 3.half dozen 3.7 3.8 four.2
TRP i.1 0.6 0.5 1.3 ane.2 one.2 0.7 0.9 1.0
VAL 4.five three.2 4.half-dozen 4.8 5.0 4.9 iv.iii 4.7 five.1
ALA 4.2 2.0 8.seven iv.4 4.4 4.4 3.4 4.iv 6.3
ASP 11.7 two.6 6.0 11.iii vii.ane 8.8 x.half-dozen xi.6 9.2
GLU 18.0 26.five xx.vii 17.8 16.9 nineteen.0 twenty.8 16.3 12.ix
GLY iv.five 2.six 2.vii 4.two 5.0 5.vii three.9 4.4 v.7
SER v.0 3.6 five.i 5.0 4.iv four.three 5.three 4.7 iii.9
PRO 5.0 7.0 8.8 4.9 6.1 iv.iv iv.2 4.2 4.ane

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